As times change, so do jewelry styles. Roy DeNunzio traces the evolution of jewelry design against the backdrop of a century of history, from the Civil War to nuclear fission.

Georgian1714-1837

Revolutions champion the rights of man in the American Colonies and France.The steam engine is invented, breaking the first ground for the Industrial Revolution. Uranus is discovered. So is Uranium. The first photographic image is made. Jewelry is balanced, symmetrical, regal and elegant.
George I ascends the throne of England with no idea of the revolutions ahead. Fahrenheit invents his mercury thermometer, which will cause legions of children to squirm for generations to come. Handel's Messiah has its glorious premier, and Ben Franklin sends up a kite to confront electricity. Diderot begins work on his exhaustive Encyclopedia. A rowdy bunch of New England colonialists in Indian drag scale British merchant ships in Boston Harbor and heave-ho their tea supplies into the briny deep. The steam engine is invented, breaking the first ground for the Industrial Revolution. Uranus is discovered. So is Uranium. The Montgolfier brothers are the first humans to leave the earth in a balloon. Meanwhile, mutiny is in the air. The French revolution erupts the same year that Masters Mate Fletcher Christian wrests authority from Lieutenant William Bligh, and takes command of Her Majesty's Ship, the Bounty. George Washington is elected the first American president. The Smallpox Vaccine is discovered. Beethoven writes his first symphony, Louisiana is purchased, and the battery is invented. The first photographic image is made.

Despite the rapid progress of history in this period, Georgian jewelry was balanced, symmetrical, regal and elegant. Closed settings covered the backs of stones and most pieces were routinely remounted to keep abreast of current fashions. Larger stones, clusters of gems, and ribbon bow motifs supported by pear-shaped drops were the favored motifs. Necklaces were, for the most part, simple rivières. The ever-popular brooch surfaced in cluster buttons, starbursts, crescents, and flower heads.

However, the human passions of the period also affected the jewelry market. After the French Revolution, jewels stank of the Ancien Regimé and its anti-Republic sentiments. Most jewelry was exported from France by fleeing aristocrats selling it to survive. Other pieces, including the crown jewels, were confiscated and often dismantled. What original jewelry was created during the Revolution tended to commemorate that event and lacked both style and imagination. When the Terror ended and the Directorate took over, France gradually regained its stability. Luxury items resurfaced and the jewelry trade revived.

A new dawn reflected the rebirth of equilibrium among a traumatized people. There rose a Greek revival of sorts, and a love of Roman antiquities that harkened back to former ages of culture and order. Women demanded dresses designed as high-waisted tunics; these were dampened to cling to the feminine body, idealizing it as Greek or Roman statuary. Springtime colors of white, yellow, lilac and pistachio brought back the breath of life after the Reign of Terror's pall of death. Whatever jewelry was worn enhanced rather than detracted from that imagery. Rings were worn on every finger; simple gold bands decorated wrists, forearms and the upper arms. Long chains of flat geometrical links, often adorned with stylized heart motifs or Greek Key patterns, were worn around the neck, across the shoulder, or crossed on the bosom. Neo-Greek and Roman hairstyles brought in the popularity of pendant earrings cut from thin sheets of gold with two to three gold links of flat geometrical design shaped as lozenges, shields or acanthus leaves.

Napoleon brought back the crown jewels to France and refitted them to reflect the new fashions. Parures of rubies, emeralds, sapphires, pearls and diamonds were worn for state and court occasions. These were decorated with Greek Keys, acanthus leaves, palmettes, formal volutes, laurel leaves, arches and eagles. Cameos and Intaglios from Italy celebrated a great time in the sun. Paris jewelers set them in precious stones and metals, as well as in more affordable shell, putting them in tiaras, necklaces, bracelets and earrings mounted in simple gold collets with seed pearl borders joined by light, delicate gold chains. Despite Paris's best efforts, the greatest cameos still came out of Italy, signed by such famed designers of the times as Pistrucci and Girometti. Another high fashion item were Roman mosaics done in polychrome opaque glass held within mother-of-pearl, dark blue or black glass frames. Meanwhile, the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt introduced new elements of design into everything. Jeweler brimmed with sphinxes, pyramids, palms and papyrus leaves.

Prussia defied the Napoleonic occupation and a new jewelry style was born. Known as Berlin Iron, these were delicate pieces of jewelry done in neoclassical and floral designs fashioned from iron and lacquered to a glossy black. Patriotic Prussian women were given this jewelry in return for having volunteered their own costly gold and gems to the resistance efforts against Napoleon. This may seem like a raw deal, but Berlin Iron saw quite a vogue. Nor was this was not a singular phenomenon. Cut polished steel and a form of iron pyrite called Marcasite were crafted to look like diamonds. Closed settings with colored foil backing, so long the standard, were gradually losing favor. The new open mounts were letting light through to enhance the natural brilliance of fine gems.

Sometime after 1820 Naturalism returned to waistlines as well as to decorative motifs. Accents were suddenly seen as roses, morning glories, fuchsias, cornflowers, ears of wheat and leaves of countless varieties. There was a short revival of the formal style recast in the modern mold, but it didn't last long. Because years of war had depleted resources, jewelry designers had to do much with little to make it appear ample. Semi-precious stones were clustered to enhance their richness, while the filigree cannetille style was seen everywhere, with red, yellow and green gold combined for new effects. The designer Edouard Marchant created cuirs, and started a fashion stampede. These were thin gold leaf rolled and cut to resemble leather scrolls engraved with decorative motifs. Painted enamels came out, mounted on gold and embellished with gems and decorative reliefs. Special enameling processes such as Champlevé and guilloché found great favor with the buying public. Joining the craze for mourning jewelry were memorial rings of black enamel closed within gold borders and richly chased with floral motifs. Gem-set aigrettes decorated the hair, necklaces and bracelets abounded, and coral gained such popularity that it was absolutely de rigor for women of fashion to own coral parures.

Tiaras were designed as diamond-set laurel leaves with ruby berries, or wreathes of diamond leaves. There were openwork designs with suspended briolettes, and a Hellenistic version rising to a gable point at the center of the brow and sloping downwards. The Bandeau, a version of the tiara, displayed gem-set clusters or cameos worn on the forehead. Combs had decorated rectangular mounts, often as filigree galleries surmounted by carved coral or amber beads, while Spanish combs came with metal or tortoiseshell prongs and surmounts of gems, cameos, or gold scrollwork. Earrings were made à poissarde, in geometrical patterns set with gems, but mostly as dangling pendants and elegant, gem-encrusted pear shapes. Necklaces were gold chains of cameos, intaglios, and Roman mosaics. They also held gems or seed pearls set in light, delicate gold work. Pendants, usually worn en suite, were mostly seen as Maltese crosses or a cruciform embellished in precious or semi-precious stones.

Bracelets were worn in great numbers and including wide ribbons of gold mesh. Bracelets consisting of a silk ribbon with a gold clasp were called à la Jeannette. Diamond or gemstone link bracelets were done in geometric patterns. Rings were plentiful and worn almost constantly. Most were seen as half hoops set with a single or a double row of gemstones with shanks of soldered gold wires done in leaf designs that splayed out to form shoulders. Gem-set navettes were common, as were large centered gemstones surrounded by clusters of flower head styled gems. Brooches were quite the favored item, done in sunbursts, stars and crescents. Formal and spiky sprays of gems, and simple flower head brooches made up the balance.

Bringing these all together were parures, seen almost everywhere. These were done in precious and semi-precious stones, usually mounted in extremely fine cannetille settings that imitated fine lace enriched with leaf, rosette and burr motifs. Parures were especially popular because fashion dictated that jewelry be worn in abundance. Gems, or at least articles of gold, had to be dripping everywhere and in every form. These included pendants of all shapes, especially cruciforms, necklaces, earrings, rings, bracelets, combs and brooches. Leaves, flowers and scrolls stamped from gold leaf seemed to decorate everything.

Three other jewelry items were ubiquitous during this period and should not be overlooked. Small buckles, generally oblong, round or oval, were worn at the center of a belt or a ribbon and marked the high waistline. While these served no overt function, they were certainly pretty, decorated with motifs in pearl, topaz, amethyst or gold. Men's tiepins, another lovely indulgence, were cast in enamel, onyx, turquoise, cornelian, and diamonds, or as a combination of gemstones with chased gold fashioned in naturalistic designs such as snakes, birds or animals' heads. Finally, no gentleman of prestige was without his seal. These items were made in linear designs with domed settings. Simple surmounts were fashioned as a lyre, stirrup, scroll or baluster. Common were family crests or coats-of-arms engraved in bloodstone, carnelian, citrine, quartz, amethyst, smoky quartz, or chalcedony set in gold. For the not so rich it was colored pastes and gilded metal with an engraved motto in place of a coat-of-arms.

The modern world was gathering fast apace, but with the ascension of Victoria to the English throne a tone would be set that would affect not only Britain but also the world. Whatever its faults, or its false sense of stability amidst the turmoil, this period was the last gasp of old world privilege. It would stand to usher the old century out with a modicum of grace before the arrival of that looming monster, the Twentieth Century.

Victorian 1837-1901

The 64-year reign of Queen Victoria saw the telegraph, the telephone, and the massacre of General Custer at the Little Big Horn. It witnessed the unification of Italy under Garibaldi and the temporary collapse of Lincoln's Union during the American Civil War. The Czar of Russia abolishes serfdom, which doesn't prevent his ruling house and descendents from being wiped out by the Bolsheviks fifty-five years later. Germany becomes unified, leading to the mayhem of WWI in less than two generations. Edison introduces the light bulb, the Lumiere brothers usher in the Cinema, and Marconi makes the world a little smaller with his wireless cable. The secrets of the atom are observed by scientists and the secrets of the mind are penetrated by Freud. Just in time to relieve all this burgeoning pressure, Felix Hoffmann invents the aspirin.

Early Victorian 1837-1860
The Early Victorian period is also referred to as the Romantic Period, and with good reason. The new queen was young, vibrant, full of life and madly in love with her consort, Albert. Victoria adored jewelry and wore lots of it. Naturally the court and the nation mirrored their queen's taste. Gold in every form, sometimes set with enamel and gemstones, was the rage. Fashionably bold cabochons and matching suites of four or more pieces of jewelry enjoyed popularity. For evening wear gold and jewels reigned, but during the day less expensive ivory, tortoise shell, seed pearl, and coral were the appropriate choices. Earrings were long and dangling and bracelets were either flexible or rigid, and often worn in pairs. The belt buckle-style bracelet, in particular, had a great vogue. Necklaces were worn short, with a stone in the center that could be detached and displayed separately as either a brooch or a pendant.

The Victorians had romantic notions about the natural world, no doubt spurred by John Ruskin's philosophical ideals of beauty and God. Because of it, they adored flora and fauna images depicted in their jewelry. Victoria herself loved the serpent motif, seeing it as a symbol of fidelity and love. Jewelry designs of this period often expressed sentiment. Rings, bracelets, and lockets often contained a link of a loved one's hair. Pictures and engraved messages personalized jewelry design.

Middle Victorian 1860-1885
This is the Grand Period. Lush, ornate, opulent and luxurious, this period typified the look that most of us today imagine when we visualize the Victorian era. The Victorians belonged to a conquering, colonizing nation and were vastly satisfied with themselves despite the internal social conflicts fermenting under their eyes. Jewelry became bolder and less ornate, reflecting the rising image of the assertive and independent woman fighting for her rights and earning her own pay. The technique of granulating gems with grains of gold, once done by the ancient Etruscans, became extremely popular and revived interest in the Etruscan period. Nor was this a singular phenomenon. The great archeological discoveries of the era also spurred new and avid interest in the Ancient Greek, Roman, Egyptian and Renaissance cultures, which in turn greatly influenced the ancient and classical motifs reflected in the jewelry designs.

Unfortunately, this time also saw the death of Alfred, and Queen Victoria's subsequent retirement into an extraordinary term of grief. The queen exiled herself to permanent mourning, wearing black at all times. The court followed her lead, then society in general. Women suddenly discovered that they looked perfectly splendid in black. Jet and black onyx became extremely fashionable, and not just for mourning. The darker nature of the Victorians, mirrored so well in the brooding romances of the Brontë Sisters, the perverse fantasies of Lewis Carroll, and the twisted schizophrenia of Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr. Jekyll, emerged during this period.

Late Victorian 1885-1901
This is known as the Aesthetic Period, possibly because the country was considering more than its own smug and satisfied reflection in the mirror. After decades of being bludgeoned by Charles Dickens about society's evils and ills, the British were finally paying attention. Awareness of social injustice, hideous labor conditions and poverty raised national consciousness and sensitivity to the plight of others. Conspicuous consumption in the form of elaborate and ornate jewelry fell out of favor. Women wore less jewelry, and smaller versions of it. Stud earrings were invented. Bar pins with a small motif in the center were considered tasteful.

However, the grandiose impulse didn't entirely die out. After the discovery of a diamond mine in South Africa in 1867, diamonds became plentiful and less expensive. Their popularity hit the heights. Diamonds were paired with colorless gems like opals, moonstones, and the ever-beloved pearl. Dog collar necklaces were worn high on the throat, composed of several rows of pearls held together with vertical bars of diamonds or other pearls, while separate ropes of pearls hung under them.

Meanwhile, the country was undergoing spectacular advances in technology, communication, and penetrating scholarship. While these were embraced joyfully in the name of progress, their influence was galloping apace and extracting a deep psychological toll on the people. In a country rife with churches and denominations, the English found their belief in God shaken by the politics of Karl Marx, the biology of Charles Darwin, and the ruminations of Thomas Carlyle. Also, let us not forget the dehumanizing effects of the Industrial Revolution on the common man. A reactionary romanticism lashed back. In jewelry, that meant a rejection of the machine-made over the gifts of nature. The results were softer forms, spontaneous lines, and gentle colors like mauves, yellows and tender greens.

Edwardian 1901-1910
The Wright Brothers launch their prototype air machine at Kitty Hawk and the Paris police solve a crime through a new process called Fingerprinting. Einstein lets the world in on his Special Theory of Relativity while Madame Curie discovers radioactivity. Henry Ford mass produces his Model T and Frederick Hopkins raises a banner for preventive medicine with his invention of vitamins. Leo Baekeland introduces the world to plastic, and the long climb to Tupperware begins.

Edward led the country during the last years of his mother's reign, but when Victoria passed on and Edward assumed the throne, the real Edwardian age took off. England was the dominant global force and greatly influenced the better part of the civilized world. The power elite enjoyed an age of prosperity that they have not seen since. New designs and manufacturing techniques for jewelry proliferated. Platinum, pearls and South African diamonds were combined with profuse extravagance to demonstrate rank and wealth, only emphasizing the splendid pomp of the privileged class.

But this was a different regality than that seen during Victoria's reign. In an age of railroads, telephones, steamships and steel there was also electricity. Whereas candles and gaslight romanced the ponderously ornate Victorian look, electric lamps demolished it. The Edwardians needed to lighten their act, and did. Silks, satins and pastel colors unfettered the surroundings to let in fresh air even while Edwardian women dumped the bustle in favor of a free, natural line to their clothing and their figures. And the ateliers of the master jewelers created a new fashion called Garland Jewelry, designed specifically to reflect the wealth, status, ease and luxury of the social elite. Say goodbye to Dickensian social consciousness.

Garland Style
Louis Cartier exploited the Garland design, utilizing ideas and details from industry, art and architecture, not to mention the best of Indian, Chinese and Arab cultures. Tiffany, Fabergé, Bourcheron, Chaumet and Lacloche followed his lead, plundering every style from Ancient Greek, Classical Roman, French Baroque and Rococo, Napoleonic and Second Empire styles. Scrolls, feathers, tassels, swags of foliage, garlands of flowers, ribbon ties in flowing bow knots, triumphal laurel wreaths and the classic Greek Key design--all recreated with subtly and taste--ruled jewelry fashion. The monochromatic signature look these designers achieved relied on platinum, diamonds and pearls for its wondrous effect.

Platinum was the metal of choice. Malleable yet strong, clean and white, it could be shaped and engraved, used as a backdrop for precious gems and diamonds, and made to resemble the delicate petit point embroidery worn by fashionable women. The avalanche of diamonds from the South African mines introduced spectacular new cuts like the marquise, baguette, kite, triangle and briolette.

Pearls and Gems
Pearls, once rare, came pouring in from the Persian Gulf, Australia, Ceylon, the Mississippi Valley and Scotland, while the novel black pearl hailed in from Tahiti and Panama. Colored gemstones, plentiful and used as accents for diamonds, arrived from all over the globe. Demantoid garnet, pink topaz, amethyst, sapphire, peridot, ruby, emerald, turquoise, and tourmaline rained down on England.

For a ruling class that saw itself as royalty, the tiara made the crowning accessory. The protocol of age and rank determined who wore one, along with its height and its look. Elaborately adorned with stars, trefoils, flowers, wings, wreaths, olive branches, acanthus leaves, wheat sheaves, shamrocks, thistle heads, roses, daisies, floral garlands and flowing ribbons, the tiaras radiated light from the tresses of a woman's coiffure like a corona from a halo. The Ballet Russe and its production of Scheherazade were responsible for the popularity of feathered headdresses fashioned from ostrich and bird-of-paradise. Elaborate hairstyles also were home to jeweled combs and crescent brooches.

Fringe necklaces, rivières, dog collar chokers worn with ropes of pearl, sautoirs of seed pearls and jeweled tassels, lavaliere suspended from chains, and round plaque pendants of gems or guilloché-enameled discs decorated the swan-like throats of the aristocratic wives. Brooches and pins, worn in random multiples from the shoulder to the waist, accented the lacy gauze of the feminine bodice. Dangle earrings were the thing, dripping with pearls, diamonds and the ubiquitous garlands. Buckles boned like corsets decorated wide belts both front and back.

Platinum Lace
Rings grew large, domed and massive with ornate settings and gems. Filigree work in platinum made beautiful lacy settings for diamonds. Large settings that are airy and delicate are bold, yet delicate in feeling. Gems set in half hoops, and crossover rings with two fine stones were seen at many a grand party. Rings, like bracelets, were worn in multiples.

Aristocratic women weren't having all the fun. Their peacock husbands strutted with bejeweled stickpins in their ties and cravats. Edward VII was a dresser, and established a fashion protocol his wealthy male subjects eagerly aped. Cuff links done in colored stones like aquamarine, topaz, garnet, quartz and amethyst were common, their colors often dictated by the color and style of the shirt worn. Pocket watches sported fancy charm, medal and seal attachments to their fobs. Gypsy rings set with diamonds, rubies and sapphires shone on men's fingers, while seal rings engraved in gold or carved in carnelian, with bloodstones or chalcedonies, displayed one's family lineage.

The Edwardians also indulged their lavish tastes with gift giving. Hand-engraved cigarette cases done in silver, gold, and guilloché enamel, inset with rose-cut diamonds, cabochon sapphires, rubies or emeralds in garland motifs were high profile. Card cases, scent bottles, fans, picture frames, walking canes, parasol handles, gemstone carvings and jeweled clocks all found their way into people's hearts. Then, of course, there was Carl Fabergé delighting everyone with his enameled objects, gem carvings, bejeweled animated toys, and those unbelievable eggs.

What rises falls. The majesty of the era had its foundations shaken by the sinking of the Titanic, which resurrected ideas of social consciousness, social caste, morality and mortality. Two years later the horrors of The War to End All Wars drove the final coffin nail into a glorious and ephemeral age. The carefree, joyful confidence of the Edwardians had no defense against the grim realities of the new century.